Religion, groups, and participation

Social class: (👤 Weber, 1904, 👤 Heelas, 2000) working-class people are more likely to join sects, whereas middle-class people are more involved in denominations and New Age movements.
- Class differences narrow with religious decline.
Gender: (👥 Miller and Hoffman, 1995, 👤 Greeley, 1982) women tend to be more religious due to socialisation, structural location, and greater focus on life and death.
- Gender gap in religiosity is smaller among youth.
Ethnicity: (👤 Bruce, 1988) minorities often show higher religiosity due to cultural defence and transition. Pentecostalism appeals through community and moral discipline.
- Over time, integration can reduce religious participation.
Age: (👥 Crockett, 2005, 👤 Wallis, 1985, 👤 Barker, 1989) older people are more religious due to ageing and period effects. Young people may be drawn to New Age Movements for identity and belonging.
- Younger generations are increasingly secular.

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